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Universal suffrage

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Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to all adults, without distinction as to race, sex, belief, intelligence, or economic or social status.

In the first modern democracies only a limited number of people had a say in the running of the government - for example in the United Kingdom only Protestant, male landowners with relatively large holdings had the right to vote. Suffrage depended on local custom before 1832, so there were exceptions. In all modern democracies the number of people who could vote increased gradually with time. The 19th century featured movements advocating universal male suffrage - the extension to all males regardless of social standing or race. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying Liberals and Social Democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal and Common Suffrage. The Movement for Universal Suffrage consisted of a social, economic and political movement aimed at extending suffrage to people of all races.

Contents

Expanding suffrage

The first movements toward universal suffrage (or manhood suffrage) occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the focus of universal suffrage movement became the removal of restrictions against women having the right to vote.

Several countries which had enacted universal suffrage had their normal legal process, or their existence, interrupted during the Second World War.

Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on the basis of race or ethnicity. For example, non-white people could not vote in national elections during apartheid-era South Africa, until the system came to an end with the first free multi-party elections in 1994. In the pre-Civil Rights Era American South, black people often technically had the right to vote, but various means prevented many of them from exercising that right. The Ku Klux Klan formed after the American Civil War, largely to intimidate black people and to prevent them from voting.

Other disenfranchisement

Some so-called "universal" suffrage systems still exclude some potential voters. For example, some jurisdictions deny the vote to various categories of convicted criminals or the mentally ill, and almost all jurisdictions deny the vote to non-citizen residents and citizens under the age of 18. Many states within the USA used to disenfranchise paupers, persons who either paid no direct taxes or those receiving public assistance.[citation needed]

There are also differing degrees of legal recognition of non-resident citizens: non-resident Italians have a representative at-large in the Italian parliament; U.S. citizens voting abroad vote as residents of the last state where they (or their parents) lived; Britons, however, can not vote for their national parliament unless they have lived in the U.K. in the last five years. A few nations also restrict those who are involved in the military or police forces, as it is in the case of Kuwait.[1]

The development/integration of the European Union has changed a few matters. Citizens of an EU Member-State are allowed to vote in E.U. parliamentary elections, as well as some local elections. For example, a Briton living in Graz, Austria, would be able to vote in for the European Parliament as a resident of the "electoral district" of Austria, and to vote in Graz municipal elections. He would, however, not be able to vote in Austrian (federal) elections, or Styrian (state) elections. On the other hand, all residents of a municipality in the UK are allowed to vote for representatives of the local council, regardless of citizenship.

Universal suffrage in the world

States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times, including Brunei since 1962.

Universal suffrage by country/state in chronological order Year Country / Territory Notes 1755 - 1769 CorsicaFirst self-governingnation to give suffrage to women (if unmarried or widowed). Annexed by Francein 1769. 1776 - 1807 New Jersey, USAFirst state to include both women and blacks. There was a property requirement; but its enforcement was and is disputed. New Jersey was independent until 1789. 1792 Principality of LiègeUniversal suffrage (all inhabitants over 18, without distinction) in the state of Liège to elect all the members of the National Convention. 1864 RomaniaThe first Europeanstate to institute direct, secret, universal male suffrage. (under Cuza) 1864 GreeceThe second Europeanstate to institute direct, secret, universal male suffrage. 1867 New ZealandAll New Zealand Maorimen over 21 were eligible to vote. Maori men achieved universal suffrage 12 years before European men.[2]1869 Wyoming, USAThe first U.S. territoryto allow women to run for the legislatureand vote. Upon the state's admission into the Union in 1890, Wyoming was the first U.S. stateto grant women the voting franchise. Other Western states also had universal suffrage before 1920. 1869 SpainUniversal suffrage for men practiced since 1869 to 1923 and in the Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936). In 1933: Universal (for both Male and Female) suffrage. Revoked during Franco era (1939-1975) and recovered since 1977 and in the new Spanish Constitution. 1867/1871 German EmpireUniversal and equal suffrage for men (aged over 25); only valid in national elections while some states (like Prussia) practiced a census suffrageor had no elections at all (like Mecklenburg) until the overthrow over the monarchy in 1919 1886 - 1899 TavolaraDuring its republican period 1886-1899, this small island country near Sardiniapracticed universal suffrage. Later it became a part of Italy. 1889 FrancevilleFirst self-governingnation after New Jerseyto practice universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race; however, only whites could hold office. After 1906 it was jointly ruled by Franceand Britainand is now part of Vanuatu. 1893 New ZealandWith the inclusion of women becomes the first major nation to grant universal suffrage; however, women were not eligible to stand for parliament until 1919. 1894 South AustraliaWomen's suffrage, but not universal. First state to also allow women as candidates for parliament. Other Australian states followed 1899-1908. Indigenous Australianswere allowed to vote, but this right was restricted for some of them from 1902 and not completely restored until 1963. 1901 AustraliaThe Commonwealth Constitution does not guarantee universal adult suffrage,[3]although three Justices in McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140; 134 ALR 289 stated that the requirement did in fact flow from the Commonwealth Constitution, as interpreted today. 1906 Grand Duchy of FinlandAs an autonomousGrand Duchyin the Russian Empire, including women, first nation to also allow women as candidates. The Finnish parliamentary election of 1907was the first time when women were actually elected (19 of 200 MPs). Finlandbecame independent with the same Universal Suffrage in 1917. 1907 AustriaUniversal and equal suffrage for men 1913 NorwayIncluding women, first independent nation to also allow women as candidates. 1915 DenmarkFirst voting rights to anyone came in 1849, and the rules was changed a number of times. But it was not until the change of the constitution in 1915 that all men and women had influence on all chambers. 1918 CanadaAll women were granted the right to vote, and since 1920 a uniform federal franchise was created;[4]Last to enact women's suffrage provincially was Quebecin 1940; status Indiansgained the right to vote in 1960. 1918 Estonia1918 United KingdomWomen over 30 had been given the vote in 1918 with some property restrictions and in 1928 universal suffrage for all. 1918 Soviet UnionWith the 1918 Soviet Constitution, although direct voting and the lifting of some political restrictions not until the 1936 Soviet Constitution; as the Soviet Union was a communist one-party stateand in fact a dictatorship, voters had no real influence on the government. 1918 AustriaAfter the Central Powers' defeat in World War Iuniversal suffrage including women. 1918 CzechoslovakiaAfter the Central Powers' defeat in World War I 1918 GermanyAfter the Central Powers' defeat in World War I and the introduction of a democratic system, the Weimar Republic. Revoked during 1935-1945 by the Nuremberg Laws. The restrictions applied also to the territories occupied by the Nazisduring World War II1918 HungaryAfter the Central Powers' defeat in World War I 1919 Democratic Republic of Armeniabecame part of the Soviet Union in 1920 1919 Azerbaijan Democratic Republicbecame part of the Soviet Union in 1920 1919 Democratic Republic of Georgiabecame part of the Soviet Union in 1921 1919 Poland1919 Luxembourg1919 The Netherlandsuniversal male suffrage in 1917 1920 United StatesUniversal suffrage for all males 21 and older granted by United States Constitutionin 1788. Extended to women with the 19th Amendmentin 1920. African Americanswere legally given the right to vote by the 15th Amendmentin 1870, but this was restricted in some areas, particularly the South, through paralegal methods until 1964, when the Civil Rights Actenforced the 15th Amendment, and the 24th Amendmentended poll taxing, thus removing all restrictions to the African American vote. Minimum voting age reduced to 18 by 26th Amendmentin 1971. 1921 Swedenuniversal male suffrage 1909, female suffrage 1921 1922 Lithuania1922 Republic of IrelandAs the Irish Free Statein 1922, law adopted from British law having been part of the United Kingdom. Law subsequently carried over during changes in constitutional status in 1937 and 1949. 1925 NewfoundlandJoined Canada in 1949. 1931 Sri Lanka(as Ceylon) Indian Tamilsdisenfranchised 1949 1932 BrazilReplaced the previous system of male suffrage, from 1891, which excluded homeless, women, priests, the military and illiterates. 1933 Turkey1935 BurmaLast free elections held in 1990.[5]1944 FranceUniversal male suffrage used in 1792, for the National Convention, enacted in 1793 and 1848, but restricted with length of residence in 1851; reintroduced in 1852. 1944 JamaicaUniversal suffrage for all males and females 21 or older 1945 ItalyUniversal male suffrage 1912 for people 30 or older, 1918 for people 21 or older 1945 JapanUniversal male suffrage 1926 1947 Republic of China(now on Taiwan) Universal suffrage under the Constitution of the Republic of China1948 United NationsProvision of "universal and equal suffrage" in Universal Declaration of Human Rights[Article 21(3)] 1948 IsraelUniversal suffrage since the founding of the State of Israel.[6]1948 South Korea1948 Belgium1950 IndiaAll citizens as recognized by the Constitution of India, irrespective of race or gender. 1951 ArgentinaUniversal male suffrage granted in 1912; universal women's suffrage introduced in 1947. 1951 GhanaUniversal suffrage granted for the 1951 legislative election. 1952 GreeceUniversal male suffrage 1864; women permitted to vote in local elections 1930. 1955 MalaysiaThe victory of Union Party convinces the British to grant Malaysia's Independencein 1957. 1956 ColombiaPakistanElectorate defined on the basis of adult franchise and Joint electorate. 1963 IranReforms under Shah's "White Revolution" 1964 AfghanistanConstitution transformed Afghanistan into a modern democracy.[7]1965 AustraliaA murky constitutional history regarding the voting rights of Aboriginals of Australiawas clarified and ratified at the federal government level and in subsequent state governments in the following years - see Human rights in Australiafor more. 1971 SwitzerlandIntroduction of women's suffrage at the federal level; for cantonalelections this was not completed until 1990. 1976 Portugal1979 European Community (now European Union) 1984 Liechtenstein1990 Samoa1994 South Africauniversal suffrage not regarding race or colour of skin; Blacks and Colouredswere denied the right to vote during the Apartheid era (1948-1994)

White women's suffrage granted in 1930.

1996 Taiwan2002 BahrainUniversal male suffrage in 1973, although parliament was suspended and dissolved in 1975 for approximately 30 years. 2003 Oman2005 KuwaitUniversal adult male suffrage since 1962, for citizens who are 21 or older, with the exception of those who, at the time of elections, serve in the armed forces and, citizens who have been naturalized for fewer than 30 years. Note: As of 2005, women who satisfy the age and citizenship requirements are allowed to vote provided both men and women vote in separate polling locations. 2006 - 2010 U.A.E.Limited, will be fully expanded by 2010.[8]2008 QatarMunicipal elections in 1999. 2008 BhutanThe first ever democratic electionsbased on universal suffrage were held on March 24, 2008.[9]

Women suffrage

Main article: Women's suffrage

The first women's suffrage was granted in Corsica in 1755 and lasted until 1769.

Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was next granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men") and rescinded in 1807.

The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838. Various other countries and states granted restricted women's suffrage in the latter half of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.

The first unrestricted women's suffrage in terms of voting rights (women were not initially permitted to stand for election) in a major country was granted in New Zealand. The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893.

South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in 1894.

In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being elected. During the discussion to extend their right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of orientation. Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.

References

This article needs additional citationsfor verification.
Please help improve this articleby adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challengedand removed. (May 2007)
  1. ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Kuwait
  2. ^ History of the Vote : Māori and the Vote
  3. ^ Attorney General (Cth); Ex rel McKinlay v Commonwealth (1975) 135 CLR 1; 7 ALR 593
  4. ^ Dyck, Rand. (2004). Canadian Politics: Critical Approaches Fifth Edition. Thomson & Nelson. Toronto, Canada
  5. ^ BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Country profiles | Timeline: Burma
  6. ^ Rummel, Rudolph J. (1997), Power Kills: Democracy As a Method of Nonviolence, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 0765805235
  7. ^ BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Profile: Ex-king Zahir Shah
  8. ^ http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2333_E.htm
  9. ^ "Heavy Turnout in First Bhutan Election", Somini Sengupta, New York Times, March 25, 2008

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