Protestantism

Protestantism encompasses the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated with the doctrines of the Reformation. Protestant doctrine, in contradistinction to that of Roman Catholicism, rejects papal authority and doctrine, and is also known in continental European traditions as Evangelical doctrine. It typically holds that scripture (rather than tradition or ecclesiastic interpretation of scripture[1]) is the only source of revealed truth, and also that salvation can be achieved through God's grace alone. The key tenets of Protestantism are outlined in the Five Solas.

The word Protestant is derived from the Latin protestatio meaning declaration which refers to the letter of protestation by Lutheran princes against the decision of the Diet of Speyer in 1529, which reaffirmed the edict of the Diet of Worms against the Reformation.[2] Since that time, the term Protestantism has been used in many different senses, often as a general term to refer to Western Christianity that is not subject to Papal authority.[2]

While the faiths and churches born directly or indirectly of the Protestant Reformation constitute Protestantism, in common usage, the term is often used in contradistinction to Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.[3] This usage is imprecise. There are many non-Roman Catholic, non-Eastern Orthodox communions that long predate the Reformation (notably Oriental Orthodoxy). The Anglican Church, although born of the Protestant reformation, differs from the reformation principles of most other Protestants and is referred to as a middle path—a via media—between Roman Catholic and Protestant doctrines. Other groups, such as the Mormons and Jehovah's Witnesses, reject Protestantism as a deviation from true Christianity, while perceiving themselves to be restorationists.

1 Major groupings
2 Denominations
3 Theological tenets of the reformation
4 Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper
5 Catholicism
6 Radical Reformation
7 Movements within Protestantism
8 Founders: the first Protestant major reformers and theologians
9 See also
10 References
11 External links

Major groupings

The churches most commonly associated with Protestantism can be divided along four fairly definitive lines:

Mainline Protestants—a North American phrase—are those who trace their lineage to Luther, Calvin, or Anglicanism. These groups hold the doctrines of the Reformation. They include such denominations as Lutherans, Presbyterians, and Methodists.
Anabaptists are part of a movement that developed from the Radical Reformation. Today, denominations such as Baptists,[4] Pentecostals, Adventists, Brethren, Mennonites and Amish eschew infant baptism and see baptism as aligned with a demonstration of the gifts of the spirit.
Restorationists are a more recent movement beginning with the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement. Restorationists may not consider themselves Protestants. Nevertheless, they do not recognize papal authority, and so they are most commonly deemed Protestants by those who include them among Christian denominations.
Nontrinitarian movements reject the doctrine of the trinity. Today, they include such denominations as the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Unitarians, Christadelphians and some Quakers.

Denominations

Main article: Protestants by country

Protestants often refer to specific Protestant churches and groups as denominations to imply that they are differently named parts of the whole church. This "invisible unity" is assumed to be imperfectly displayed, visibly: some denominations are less accepting of others, and the basic orthodoxy of some is questioned by most of the others. Individual denominations also have formed over very subtle theological differences. Other denominations are simply regional or ethnic expressions of the same beliefs. The actual number of distinct denominations is hard to calculate, but has been estimated to be over thirty thousand. Various ecumenical movements have attempted cooperation or reorganization of Protestant churches, according to various models of union, but divisions continue to outpace unions, as there is no overarching authority to which any of the sects owe allegiance, which can authoritatively define the faith. Most denominations share common beliefs in the major aspects of the Christian faith, while differing in many secondary doctrines, although what is major and what is secondary is a matter of idiosyncratic belief. There are "over 33,000 denominations in 238 countries" and every year there is a net increase of around 270 to 300 denominations.[5] According to David Barrett's study (1970), there are 8,196 denominations within Protestantism.

There are about 800 million Protestants worldwide,[6] among approximately 1.5 billion Christians.[7][8] These include 170 million in North America, 160 million in Africa, 120 million in Europe, 70 million in Latin America, 60 million in Asia, and 10 million in Oceania.

Protestants can be differentiated according to how they have been influenced by important movements since the magisterial Reformation and the Puritan Reformation in England. Some of these movements have a common lineage, sometimes directly spawning later movements in the same groups. Only general families are listed here (due to the above-stated multitude of denominations); some of these groups do not consider themselves as part of the Protestant movement, but are generally viewed as such by the public at large:

v • d • e Christian Denominationsin Australia Australia Christian bodies v • d • e Australia Interchurch

Australian Evangelical Alliance • site
National Council of Churches • site

Catholic & Anglican

Anglican Church of Australia • site
Roman Catholic Church • site

Holiness & Pietist

Christian and Missionary Alliance • site
Christian Outreach Centre • site
Church of the Nazarene • site
Salvation Army • site
Seventh-day Adventist Church • site

Historical Protestantism

Australian Friends • site
Baptist Union of Australia • site
Brethren • site
Christian Reformed Churches of Australia • site
Churches of Christ • site
Fellowship of Congregational Churches • site
Lutheran Church of Australia • site
Presbyterian Church of Australia • site
Uniting Church in Australia • site
Wesleyan Methodist Church of Australia • site

Orthodox

Antiochian Orthodox of Australia & New Z. • site
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia • site
Serbian Orthodox of Australia & New Z. • site

Non-Chalcedonic

Coptic Orthodox Church in Australia • Mel-Syd

Pentecostal & Related

Australian Christian Churches (AOG) • site
Christian City Church Intl. • site
CRC Churches International • site
Revival Centres International • site
Vineyard Churches Australia • site
Worldwide Church of God • site

United Kingdom UK Christian Denominations v • d • e UK Interchurch

Affinity (formerly British Evangelical Council) • site
Churches Together in Britain & Ireland • site
Evangelical Alliance, UK • site locate
Fellowship of Independent Evangelical Churches • site
Churches Together in England • site
Action of Churches Together, Scotland (ACTS) • site
Associating Evangelical Churches of Wales • site
Churches Together in Wales • site
Evangelical Movement of Wales • site

Anglican

Church of England • site
Free Church of England • site
Church of Ireland • site
Scottish Episcopal Church • site
Church in Wales • site

Catholic

Roman Catholicism

England & Wales site
Ireland site
Scotland • site

Old Catholicism

British Old Catholic Church • site
Old Catholic Church in Europe • site
Old Catholic Mariavite Church • site
Old Catholic Church of Great Britain • site
Traditional Catholic Orthodox Church • site
United Ecumenical Catholic Church • site

Baptists

Baptist Union of Great Britain • site
Baptist Union of Scotland • site
Baptist Union of Wales • site
Grace Baptist Assembly • site
Old Baptist Union • site

Holiness & Pietist

Christian Outreach Centre • site
Church of the Nazarene • nth , sth
British Moravian Church • site
Salvation Army • site
Seventh-day Adventist Church • site
Wesleyan Holiness Church • site

Methodist & Wesleyan

Free Methodist of the UK • site
Methodist Church in Ireland • site
Methodist Church of Great Britain • site
Wesleyan Reform Union • site

Orthodox

Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of G.B. • site
Russian Orthodox Diocese, G.B. & Ire. • site
Russian Tradition Vicariate, G.B. & Ire. • site

Non-Chalcedonic Orthodox

British Orthodox Church • site
Celtic Orthodox Church • site

Pentecostal

Assemblies of God • G.Bri Ire
Church of God in Christ • site
Elim Pentecostal Church • site
Foursquare Gospel Church • site
Ichthus Christian Fellowship • site
Newfrontiers • site
Pioneer Church • site
Worldwide Church of God • site

Presbyterian & Reformed

Associated Presbyterian Churches, Scotland • site
Church of Scotland]] • site
Congregational Federation • site
Evangelical Presbyterian Church • site
Free Church of Scotland • site
Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) • site
Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland • site
Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster • site
Non-subscribing Presbyterian, Ireland • site
Presbyterian Church in Ireland • site
Presbyterian Church of Wales • site
Reformed Presbyterian Church • N.Ire, Scot
United Free Church of Scotland • site
United Reformed Church • site

Other

Brethren in Christ • site
Churches of Christ • site
Fellowship of Ind. Evangelical Churches • site
Quakers/ Britain Yearly Meeting • site
Quakers/ Ireland Yearly Meeting • site
Vineyard Churches UK • site

United States United States Christian bodies v • d • e United States Interchurch

National Association of Evangelicals • site mbrs
National Council of Churches • site mbrs
Churches Uniting in Christ • site mbrs
S. Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America • site mbrs
North Am. Presbyterian & Reformed Council • site mbrs

Anabaptist & Friends

Church of the Brethren • site locate
Friends United Meeting • site locate
Mennonite Church USA • site locate
Old Order Amish Mennonite Church

Baptist & Stone-Campbell

Baptist

Alliance of Baptists • site locate
American Baptist Association • site locate
American Baptist Churches • site locate
Baptist Bible Fellowship International • site locate
Baptist General Conference • site locate
Baptist Missionary Association of America • site locate
Conservative Baptist Association of America • site locate
General Association of Regular Baptist Churches • site locate
National Association of Free Will Baptists • site locate
National Primitive Baptist Convention • site
North American Baptist Conference • site locate
Southern Baptist Convention • site locate

African-American Baptist

National Baptist Convention of America • site locate
National Baptist Convention, USA • site locate
National Missionary Baptist Convention of America • site locate
Progressive National Baptist Convention • site locate

Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement

Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) • site locate
Christian Churches and Churches of Christ • site locate
Churches of Christ • site locate
International Churches of Christ • site

Catholic & Anglican

Episcopal Church • site locate
Old Roman Catholic Church • site locate
Polish National Catholic Church • site locate
Roman Catholic Church • site locate

Holiness & Pietist

Christian and Missionary Alliance • site locate
Church of God (Anderson) • site locate
Church of the Nazarene • site locate
Evangelical Covenant Church • site locate
Evangelical Free Church of America • site locate
Free Methodist Church of N. Am. • site locate
Salvation Army • site locate
Seventh-day Adventist Church • site locate
Wesleyan Church • site locate

Lutheran

Evangelical Lutheran Church in America • site locate
Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod • site locate
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod • site locate

Methodist

African Methodist Episcopal Church • site locate
African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church • site
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church • site locate
United Methodist Church • site locate

Orthodox

Locate Parish

Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese • site locate
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America • site locate
Orthodox Church in America • site locate
Serbian Orthodox Church • W locate E locate

Non-Chalcedonic

Armenian Apostolic of Am. • site locate
Armenian Apostolic Diocese of Am. • W lct E lct
Coptic Orthodox Church • site locate

Pentecostal

Assemblies of God • site locate
Church of God (Cleveland, TN) • site locate
Church of God in Christ • site
Church of God of Prophecy • site locate
Full Gospel Fellowship • site locate
Intl. Church of the Foursquare Gospel • site locate
Intl. Pentecostal Holiness Church • site locate
Pentecostal Church of God • site locate

Oneness Pentecostal

Pentecostal Assemblies of the World • site locate
United Pentecostal Church Intl. • site locate

Presbyterian & Reformed

Christian Reformed Church in North America • site locate
Conservative Congregational Christian Conference • site locate
Cumberland Presbyterian Church • site locate
Evangelical Presbyterian Church • site locate
Korean Presbyterian Church in America • site locate
International Council of Community Churches • site locate
National Asso. of Congregational Christian Churches • site locate
Presbyterian Church (USA) • site locate
Presbyterian Church in America • site locate
Reformed Church in America • site locate
United Church of Christ • site locate

Other

Community of Christ • site locate
Grace Gospel Fellowship • site locate
Independent Fundamental Churches of America • site locate
Messianic Jewish Alliance of America • site locate
Plymouth Brethren • site
Vineyard USA • site locate

International Asso.

World Council of Churches • site
World Evangelical Alliance • site

Denominational

Friends World Committee for Consultation • site
Mennonite World Conference • site
Anglican Communion • site
Baptist World Alliance • site
World Convention of Churches of Christ • site
Eastern Orthodox Church • site
Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference • site
International Lutheran Council • site
Lutheran World Federation • site
World Methodist Council • site
Pentecostal World Conference • site
International Conference of Reformed Churches • site
Reformed Ecumenical Council • site
World Communion of Reformed Churches • site
World Reformed Fellowship • site

Regional Associations North America

North American Baptist Fellowship • site
S. Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America • site
North Am. Presbyterian & Reformed Council • site

Latin America

Latin American Council of Churches (CLAI) • site
Latin American Evangelical Fellowship (FIDE) • site
Union of Baptists in Latin America • site

Caribbean

Caribbean Conference of Churches (CCC) • site
Evangelical Association of the Caribbean • site
Caribbean Baptist Fellowship • site

Europe

Conference of European Churches (CEC) • site
European Evangelical Alliance • site
European Baptist Federation • site

Middle East

Middle East Council of Churches (MECC) • site

Africa

All Africa Conference of Churches (AACC) • site
Association of Evangelicals of Africa (AEA) • site
All Africa Baptist Fellowship • site
Africa Lutheran Communion • site

Asia

Christian Conference of Asia (CCA) • site
Evangelical Fellowship of Asia • site
Asia Pacific Baptist Federation • site
Asia Lutheran Communion • site

Pacific

Pacific Conference of Churches (PCC) • site
Evangelical Fellowship of the South Pacific (EFSP) • site
Asia Pacific Baptist Federation • site

Theological tenets of the reformation

Main article: Five solas

The Five Solas are five Latin phrases (or slogans) that emerged during the Protestant Reformation and summarize the Reformers' basic theological beliefs in contradistinction to the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church of the day. The Latin word sola means "alone," "only," or "single" in English. The five solas were what the Reformers believed to be the only things needed in their respective opinions for Christian salvation. The Bible was taught as the only norm. Listing them as such was also done with a view to excluding other things that in the Reformers' respective views hindered or were unnecessary for salvation. This formulation was intended to distinguish between what were viewed as deviations in the Christian church and the essentials of Christian life and practice. In these opinions they differed from the universal consensus of Christians in historical Christianity.

Solus Christus: Christ alone.

The Protestants characterize the dogma concerning the Pope as Christ's representative head of the Church on earth, the concept of meritorious works, and the Catholic idea of a treasury of the merits of saints, as a denial that Christ is the only mediator between God and man. Catholics, on the other hand, maintained the traditions of Judaism on these questions, and appealed to the universal consensus of Christian tradition, that Peter and his successors were mandated by Jesus Christ as his vicars on earth after his ascension, to keep his follewers united.(Matt. 16:18, 1 Cor. 3:11, Eph. 2:20, 1 Pet. 2:5–6, Rev. 21:14).

Sola scriptura: Scripture alone.

Protestants believe that the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church obscure the teachings of the Bible by convoluting it with church history and doctrine. Catholics believed that the Holy Spirit, which Jesus Christ promised would be with his followers until the end of time, and guide it into the fullness of truth, led the Catholic Church into a more sophisticated understanding of revelation in history.(Matthew 10:19; Mark 13:11; Luke 12:11, 21:14)

Sola fide: Faith alone.

Protestants believe that faith in Christ alone is enough for eternal salvation as described in Ephesians 2:8-9, whereas Catholics believe that the phrases "faith without works is dead" (as stated in James 2:20) and "Ye see then how that by works a man is justified, and not by faith only" (James 2:24); points to the justified person needing to persevere in charity. Protestants, pointing to the same scripture,believe that practicing good works merely attest to one's faith in Christ and his teachings.

Sola gratia: Grace alone.

Protestants perceived Roman Catholic salvation to be dependent upon the grace of God and the merits of one's own works. The Reformers posited that salvation is a gift of God (i.e., God's act of free grace), dispensed by the Holy Spirit owing to the redemptive work of Jesus Christ alone. Consequently, they argued that a sinner is not accepted by God on account of the change wrought in the believer by God's grace, and that the believer is accepted without regard for the merit of his works — for no one deserves salvation. Catholics believed that faith was not just a belief, but a way of life, and in both lay salvation, not faith alone. (Matt.7:21)

Soli Deo gloria: Glory to God alone

All glory is due to God alone, since salvation is accomplished solely through his will and action—not only the gift of the all-sufficient atonement of Jesus on the cross but also the gift of faith in that atonement, created in the heart of the believer by the Holy Spirit. The reformers believed that human beings—even saints canonized by the Roman Catholic Church, the popes, and the ecclesiastical hierarchy—are not worthy of the glory that was accorded them. On these bases they considered themselves justified in forming new denominations at war with the Catholic Church, rather than sharing its mission.

Christ's presence in the Lord's Supper

Main articles: Real Presence and Eucharist

The Protestant movement began to coalesce into several distinct branches in the mid-to-late sixteenth century. One of the central points of divergence was controversy over the Lord's Supper. Every Protestant Reformer had his own novel view.

Early Protestants generally rejected the Roman Catholic dogma of transubstantiation, which teaches that the bread and wine used in the sacrificial rite of the Mass lose their natural substance by being transformed into the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ. They disagreed with one another concerning the manner in which Christ is present in Holy Communion.

Lutherans hold to the Real Presence as Consubstantiation (although some Lutherans disapprove of the term "Consubstantiation". It was Philipp Melancthon's term used with Martin Luther's approval), which affirms the physical presence of Christ's true Body & Blood supernaturally "in, with, and under" the Consecrated Bread and Wine. Lutherans point to Jesus' statement, "...This IS my body...". According to the Lutheran Confessions of Faith the Sacramental Union takes place at the time of Consecration, when Christ's Words of Institution are spoken by the celebrant. Lutheran teaching insists that the Consecrated Bread & Wine ARE the truly abiding and adorable Body & Blood of Christ in a Sacramental Union, while also affirming the Lord's Supper ranges along the continuum from Calvin to Zwingli.
The Reformed closest to Calvin emphasize the real presence, or sacramental presence, of Christ, saying that the sacrament is a means of saving grace through which only the elect believer actually partakes of Christ, but merely WITH the Bread & Wine rather than in the Elements. Calvinists deny the Lutheran assertion that Christ makes himself present to the believer in the elements of the sacrament, but affirm that Christ is united to the believer through faith—toward which the supper is an outward and visible aid, this is often referred to as dynamic presence. Why this aid is necessary in addition to faith differs according to the believer. Some Protestants (such as the Salvation Army) do not believe it is necessary at all.
A Protestant holding a popular simplification of the Zwinglian view, without concern for theological intricacies as hinted at above, may see the Lord's Supper merely as a symbol of the shared faith of the participants, a commemoration of the facts of the crucifixion, and a reminder of their standing together as the Body of Christ (a view referred to somewhat derisively as memorialism).
The churches of the Anglican Communion do not have a single understanding of the Eucharist, and there is no official doctrine common to Anglicans on the question. Some hold to understandings like those of Lutherans, Calvinists, or Zwinglians, while others hold doctrines very similar (or even identical) to the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. Historically, the Church of England was opposed to the doctrine of transubstantiation, as described in the twenty-eighth of the 39 Articles; although the 39 Articles in contemporary Anglicanism are almost universally ignored, at least in part.

In Protestant theology, as the bread shares identity with Christ (which he calls "my body"), in an analogous way, the Church shares identity with Christ (and also is called "the Body of Christ"). Thus, controversies over the Lord's Supper may seem to be only about the nature of the bread and wine, but are ultimately about the nature of salvation and the Church; and indirectly about the nature of Christ. There are as many different views on the question as there are Protestant denominations.

Catholicism

Contrary to how the Protestant reformers were often characterized, the concept of a catholic, or universal, Church was not brushed aside during the Protestant Reformation. To the contrary, the visible unity of the Catholic Church was an important and essential doctrine of the Reformation. The Magisterial Reformers, such as Martin Luther, John Calvin, and Ulrich Zwingli, believed that they were reforming a corrupt and heretical Catholic Church. Each of them took very seriously the charges of schism and innovation, denying these charges and maintaining that it was the medieval Roman Catholic Church that had left them;notwithstanding that they were individuals in the 16th century who espoused radically different opinions from what was the common and constant teaching of the Christian Church hitherto.

The visible church, in the idea of the Scottish theologians, is "catholic", rather than "Catholic". You have not an indefinite number of Parochial, or Congregational, or National churches, constituting, as it were, so many ecclesiastical individualities, but one great spiritual republic, of which these various organizations form a part, notwithstanding that they each have very different opinions. The visible church is not a genus, so to speak, with so many species under it. It is thus you may think of the State, but the visible church is a totum integrale, it is an empire, with an ethereal emperor, rather than a visible one. The churches of the various nationalities constitute the provinces of this empire; and though they are so far independent of each other, yet they are so one, that membership in one is membership in all, and separation from one is separation from all... This conception of the church, of which, in at least some aspects, we have practically so much lost sight, had a firm hold of the Scottish theologians of the seventeenth century.[9]

Wherever the Magisterial Reformation, which received support from the ruling authorities, took place, the result was a reformed national church envisioned to be a part of the whole visible Holy catholic Church described in the creeds, but disagreeing, in certain important points of doctrine and doctrine-linked practice, with what had until then been considered the normative reference point on such matters, namely the See of Rome. The Reformed Churches thus believed in a form of Catholicity, founded on their doctrines of the five solas and a visible ecclesiastical organization based on the 14th and 15th century Conciliar movement, rejecting the Papacy and Papal Infallibility in favor of Ecumenical councils, but rejecting the Council of Trent. Catholic unity therefore became not one of doctrine and identity, but one of invisible character, wherein the unity was one of faith in Jesus Christ, not common identity, belief, and collaborative action.

Today there is a growing movement of Protestants, especially of the Reformed tradition, that reject the designation "Protestant" because of its negative "anti-catholic" connotations, preferring the designation "Reformed," "Evangelical" or even "Reformed Catholic" expressive of what they call a "Reformed Catholicity" [1] and defending their arguments from the traditional Protestant Confessions. [10]

Radical Reformation

Unlike mainstream Evangelical (Lutheran), Reformed (Zwinglian and Calvinist) Protestant movements, the Radical Reformation, which had no state sponsorship, generally abandoned the idea of the "Church Visible" as distinct from the "Church Invisible". It was a rational extension of the State-approved Protestant dissent, which took the value of independence from constituted authority a step further, arguing the same for the civic realm. Hence the Puritan revolution in England, which decapitated the King and established a radical equality in civil governance. For them, the Church only consisted of the tiny community of believers, who accepted Jesus Christ by adult baptism, called "believer's baptism". Others believed that the Church could not be defined as anything more than a single congregation meeting together for worship at one time in a single place. These were the Congregationalists and Presbyterians. The Radical Reformation thus did not believe that the Magisterial Reformation had gone far enough. For example, radical reformer Andreas von Bodenstein Karlstadt referred to the Lutheran theologians at Wittenberg as the "new papists".[11] It was exactly because the Reformation still strongly defended the visible unity of the Catholic Church that they were criticized by the Radical Reformers and vice versa. But the original Protestant reformers may not have realized the ultimate consequences of their new teachings.

Movements within Protestantism

Diagram showing major branches and movements within Protestantism

Pietism and Methodism

Main articles: Pietism and Methodism

The German Pietist movement, together with the influence of the Puritan Reformation in England in the seventeenth century, were important influences upon John Wesley and Methodism, as well as through smaller, new groups such as the Religious Society of Friends ("Quakers") and the Moravian Brethren from Herrnhut, Saxony, Germany.

The practice of a spiritual life, typically combined with social engagement, predominates in classical Pietism, which was a protest against the doctrine-centeredness Protestant Orthodoxy of the times, in favor of depth of religious experience. Many of the more conservative, Methodists went on to form the Holiness movement, which emphasized a rigorous experience of holiness in practical, daily life.

Evangelicalism

Main article: Evangelicalism

Beginning at the end of eighteenth century, several international revivals of Pietism (such as the Great Awakening and the Second Great Awakening) took place across denominational lines, largely in the English-speaking world. Their teachings and successor groupings are referred to generally as the Evangelical movement. The chief emphases of this movement were individual conversion, personal piety and Bible study, public morality often including Temperance and Abolitionism, de-emphasis of formalism in worship and in doctrine, a broadened role for laity (including women) in worship, evangelism and teaching, and cooperation in evangelism across denominational lines.

Adventism

Main article: Adventism

Adventism, as a movement, began in the United States in middle nineteenth century. The Adventist family of churches are regarded today as conservative Protestants.[12]

Modernism, Sunderianism and Liberalism

Main article: Liberal Christianity

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Modernism, Liberalism and Sunderianism do not constitute rigorous and well-defined schools of theology, but are rather an inclination by some writers and teachers to integrate Christian thought into the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment. New understandings of history and the natural sciences of the day led directly to new approaches to theology.

Pentecostalism

Main article: Pentecostalism

Pentecostalism, as a movement, began in the United States early in the twentieth century, starting especially within the Holiness movement. Seeking a return to the operation of New Testament gifts of the Holy Spirit, speaking in tongues as evidence of the "baptism of the Holy Ghost" or to make the unbeliever believe became the leading feature. Divine healing and miracles were also emphasized. Pentecostalism swept through much of the Holiness movement, and eventually spawned hundreds of new denominations in the United States. A later "charismatic" movement also stressed the gifts of the Spirit, but often operated within existing denominations, rather than by coming out of them.

Fundamentalism

Main article: Christian fundamentalism

In reaction to liberal Bible critique, fundamentalism arose in the twentieth century, primarily in the United States and Canada, among those denominations most affected by Evangelicalism. Fundamentalism placed primary emphasis on the authority and sufficiency of the Bible, and typically advised separation from error and cultural conservatism as an important aspect of the Christian life.

Neo-orthodoxy

Main article: Neo-orthodoxy

A non-fundamentalist rejection of liberal Christianity, associated primarily with Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy sought to counter-act the tendency of liberal theology to make theological accommodations to modern scientific perspectives. Sometimes called "Crisis theology", according to the influence of philosophical existentialism on some important segments of the movement; also, somewhat confusingly, sometimes called neo-evangelicalism.

New Evangelicalism

Main article: Evangelicalism

Evangelicalism is a movement from the middle of the twentieth century, that reacted to perceived excesses of Fundamentalism, adding to concern for biblical authority, an emphasis on liberal arts, cooperation among churches, Christian Apologetics, and non-denominational evangelization.

Paleo-Orthodoxy

Main article: Paleo-orthodoxy

Paleo-orthodoxy is a movement similar in some respects to Neo-evangelicalism but emphasising the ancient Christian consensus of the undivided Church of the first millennium AD, including in particular the early Creeds and councils of the church as a means of properly understanding the Scriptures. This movement is cross-denominational and the theological giant of the movement is United Methodist theologian Thomas Oden.

Ecumenism

Main article: Christian ecumenism

The ecumenical movement has had an influence on mainline churches, beginning at least in 1910 with the Edinburgh Missionary Conference. Its origins lay in the recognition of the need for cooperation on the mission field in Africa, Asia and Oceania. Since 1948, the World Council of Churches has been influential, but ineffective in creating a united Church. There are also ecumenical bodies at regional, national and local levels across the globe; but schisms still far outnumber unifications. One, but not the only expression of the ecumenical movement, has been the move to form united churches, such as the Church of South India, the Church of North India, The US-based United Church of Christ, The United Church of Canada and the Uniting Church in Australia, which have rapidly declining memberships. There has been a strong engagement of Orthodox churches in the ecumenical movement, though the reaction of individual Orthodox theologians has ranged from tentative approval of the aim of Christian unity to outright condemnation of the perceived effect of watering down Orthodox doctrine.[2]

In 1999, the representatives of Lutheran World Federation and Roman Catholic Church signed The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, apparently resolving the conflict over the nature of Justification which was at the root of the Protestant Reformation, although some conservative Lutherans did not agree to this resolution. This is understandable, since there is no compelling authority within them. On July 18, 2006 Delegates to the World Methodist Conference voted unanimously to adopt the Joint Declaration. [3] [4]

Founders: the first Protestant major reformers and theologians

(in alphabetical order by century.)

Fourteenth century

John Wycliffe, English reformer, the "Morning Star of the Reformation".

Fifteenth century

Jan Hus, Czech reformist/dissident; burned to death in Constance, Germany in 1415 by Roman Catholic Church authorities for unrepentant and persistent heresy. After the devastation of the Hussite Wars his more radical followers founded in 1457 the Unitas Fratrum, "Unity of Brethren," which was renewed under the leadership of Count Zinzendorf in Herrnhut, Saxony in 1722 after its almost total destruction in the 30 Years War and Counter Reformation. Today it is usually referred to in English as the Moravian Church, in German the Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine.

Sixteenth century

Jacobus Arminius, Dutch theologian, founder of school of thought known as Arminianism
Heinrch Bullinger, successor of Zwingli, leading reformed theologian
John Calvin, French theologian, Reformer and resident of Geneva, Switzerland, he founded the school of theology known as Calvinism
Abaomas Kulvietis, jurs and a professor at Königsberg Albertina University, as well as a Reformer of the Lithuanian church.
John Knox, Scottish Calvinist reformer,
Martin Luther, German religious reformer, theologian, founder of the Lutheran church in Germany, founder of Lutheranism
Philipp Melanchthon, early Lutheran leader
Menno Simons, founder of Mennonitism
Huldrych Zwingli, founder of Swiss reformed tradition
John Smyth, founder of the Baptist denomination
David Courtney (preacher) (1542-1621), founder of the County Down Reformation[dubious – discuss]

References

^ O'Gorman, Robert T. and Faulkner, Mary. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Understanding Catholicism. 2003, page 317.
^ a b Definition of Protestantism at the Episcopal Church website
^ Protestantism, The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.
^ Baptists usually are considered Protestants, although some Baptists reject that association. See the Baptist article and its Origins subsection for a further discussion of Baptist Perpetuity.
^ World Christian Encyclopedia (2nd edition). David Barrett, George Kurian and Todd Johnson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001
^ Jay Diamond, Larry. Plattner, Marc F. and Costopoulos, Philip J. World Religions and Democracy. 2005, page 119.(also in PDF file, p49)
^ "between 1,250 and 1,750 million adherents, depending on the criteria employed": McGrath, Alister E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2006, page xv1.
^ "1.5 thousand million Christians": Hinnells, John R. The Routledge Companion to the Study of Religion. 2005, page 441.
^ Dr. James Walker in The Theology of Theologians of Scotland. (Edinburgh: Rpt. Knox Press, 1982) Lecture iv. pp.95-6.
^ The Canadian Reformed Magazine 18 (Sept. 20–27, Oct. 4–11, 18, Nov. 1, 8, 1969) http://spindleworks.com/library/faber/008_theca.htm
^ The Magisterial Reformation.
^ "Adventist and Sabbatarian (Hebraic) Churches" section (p. 256–276) in Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill and Craig D. Atwood, Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 12th edn. Nashville: Abingdon Press