Medieval technology

Medieval treadwheel crane Reading Saint Peter with eyeglasses (1466)

During the 12th and 13th centuries, medieval Europe saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth.[1] The period saw major technological advances, including the invention or adoption of gunpowder, the astrolabe, spectacles, and greatly improved water mills, building techniques, agriculture in general, clocks, and ships. The latter advances made possible the dawn of the Age of Exploration. The development of water mills was impressive, and extended from agriculture to sawmills both for timber and stone, probably derived from Roman technology. By the time of the Doomsday Book, most large villages in Britain had mills. They also were widely used in mining, as described by Georg Agricola in De Re Metallica for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering bellows.

European technical advancements in the 12th to 14th centuries were usually either native to Europe, usually from Roman antecedents, or adapted from cross-cultural exchanges through trading networks with the Islamic world, China, and India. Often, the revolutionary aspect lay not in the inventions themselves, but in their application to political and economic power. Though gunpowder had long been known to the Chinese, it was the Europeans who fully perfected its military potential, precipitating European expansion and eventual imperialism in the Modern Era.

Also significant in this respect were advances within the fields of navigation. The compass and astrolabe along with advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans and thus domination of the worlds economic trade. Gutenberg’s printing press made possible a dissemination of knowledge to a wider population, that would not only lead to a gradually more egalitarian society, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience.

The technical drawings of Guido da Vigevano and Villard de Honnecourt can be viewed as medieval forerunners of later Renaissance works by artist-engineers such as Taccola or da Vinci.

1 Medieval technologies
- 1.1 Civil technologies
- 1.2 Military technologies
2 Renaissance technology
3 Footnotes
4 See also
5 References
6 External links

Medieval technologies

A list of some important medieval technology. Circa is the approximate date or first mention of a technology in Medieval Europe. Technologies were often a matter of cultural exchange and date and place of first inventions are not listed here (see main links for a more complete history of each).

Civil technologies

Technology Circa Notes Arabic Numerals13th First recorded mention in Europe 976, first widely published in 1202 by Fibonacciwith his Liber Abaci. Artesian well1126 A thin rod with a hard iron cutting edge is placed in the bore hole and repeatedly struck with a hammer, underground water pressure forces the water up the hole without pumping. Artesian wells are named after the town of Artoisin France, where the first one was drilled by Carthusian monks in 1126. Blast furnace1150-1350 European cast iron first appears in Middle Europe (for instance Lapphyttanin Sweden, Dürstel in Switzerland and the Märkische Sauerland in Germany) around 1150,[2]in some places according to recent research even before 1100.[3]Technique considered to be an independent European development.[4]Compass12th The first mention of the directional compass is in Alexander Neckam's On the Natures of Things, written in Paris around 1190.[5]Either transmitted from China or the Arabsor an independent European innovation. Dry compass invented in the Mediterranean around 1300.[6]Functional button13th Buttons with buttonholes used to fasten or close garment, being the most convenient method before the introduction of the zipper, appear in the 13th century Germanyas indigenous innovation.[7]Became soon widespread with the rise of snug-fitting clothing. Grindstones834 Rough stone, usually sandstone, used to sharpen Iron. A long and difficult process, the first rotary grindstone (turned with a leveraged handle) in Medieval Europe occurs in the Utrecht Psalter. Heavy plough5th->8th The heavy wheeled plow with a moldboard first appears in the 5th century in Slaviclands, is then introduced into Northern Italy (the Povalley) and by the 8th century it was used in the Rhineland. Essential in the efficient use of the rich, heavy, often wet soils of Northern Europe, its use allowed the area's forests and swamps to be brought under cultivation. Hops11th Added to beer, importance lay primarily in its ability to preserve beer and improve transportability for trade. Horizontal loom11th Horizontal and operated by foot-treadles, faster and more efficient. Horse collar6th->9th Multiple evolutions from Classical Harness (Antiquity), to Breast Strap Harness (6th) to Horse collar (9th). Allowed more horse pulling power, such as with heavy ploughs. Horseshoes9th Allowed horse to adapt to non-grassland terrains in Europe (rocky terrain, mountains) and carry heavier loads. Possibly known to the Romans and Celts as early as 50 BC. Hourglass1338 Reasonably dependable, affordable and accurate measure of time. Unlike water in a clepsydra, the rate of flow of sand is independent of the depth in the upper reservoir, and the instrument is not liable to freeze. Hourglasses are a medieval innovation (first documented in Siena, Italy). Liquor12th Alcohol distillation by way of Islamic alchemists, initially used as medicinal elixir. Popular remedy for the Black Death during the 14th century; "national" drinks like vodka, gin, brandycome into form. Magnets12th First reference in the Roman d'Enéas, composed between 1155 and 1160. Mechanical clocks13th->14th Weight-driven clock a European innovation. Used in clock towers. Mirrors1180 First mention of "glass" mirror in 1180 by Alexander Neckhamwho said "Take away the lead which is behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in." Movable type printing press1453 Invented by Johannes Gutenberg. His great innovation was not the printing itself, but instead of using readily-carved plates as before, he used separate letters (types) from which the printing plates for pages were made up. This meant the types were recyclable and a page cast could be made up far faster than with readily-carved plates. Oil paintca. 1410 As early as the 13th century, oil was used to add details to tempera paintings. Major breakthrough by Flemish painter Jan van Eyckaround 1410 who is credited with introducing a stable oil mixture. Paper13th Invented in China, transmitted through Islamic Spain to Europe in the 13th century. Practically from the start processed by water-powered mills. Quarantine1377 Initially a 30-day-period, the Quarantine was introduced by the Republic of Ragusaas measure of disease prevention related to the Black Death. Later adopted by Venice from where the practice spread all around in Europe. Rat traps1170s First mention of a rat trap in the medieval romance Yvain, the Knight of the Lionby Chrétien de Troyes. Rib vault12th Essential element for the rise of Gothic architecture. Allowed vaults to be built for the first time over rectangles of unequal lengthes. Also greatly facilitated scaffolding. Largely replaced older groin vault. Rolling mill15th Used on producing metal sheet of even thickness. First used on soft, malleable metals, such as lead, goldand tin. Leonardo da Vincidescribed rolling mill for wrought iron. Stern-mounted rudders1180s First depiction of a pintle-and gudgeon rudder on church carvings dating to around 1180. First appeared with cogsin the North and Baltic Sea, quickly spread to Mediterranean.[8]Segmental arch bridge1345 The Ponte Vecchioin Florence is considered medieval Europe's first stone segmental arch bridge. Silk6th Manufacture of silk began in Eastern Europe in the 6th, in Western Europe in the 11th or 12th centuries. Imported over the Silk Roadsince Antiquity. Technnology of "silk throwing" mastered in Tuscany in the 13th century. The silk works used waterpower and some regard these as the first mechanized textile mills. Soap9th Soap came into widespread European use in the 9th century in semi-liquid form, with hard soap perfected by Arabs in the 12th century. Spectacles1280s European innovation. Florence, Italy. Convex lenses, of help only to the far-sighted. Concave lenses were not developed prior to the 15th century. Spinning wheel13th Brought to Europe probably from India. Tidal Mills7th Medieval invention, harnessed power of tides to turn grain mills.[9][10]Treadwheel crane1220s Earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) in archival literature in France about 1225,[11]followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240.[12]Earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrechtin 1244.[13]Watermark1282 Medieval innovation to mark paper products and to discourage counterfeiting. First introduced in Bologna, Italy. Water hammer1100s (latest) Used in metallurgy on forging the metal blooms from bloomeriesand Catalan forges. Replaced manual hammerwork. Eventually superseded by steam hammers. in 1800s. Wine press1100s First practical means of applying pressure on a plane surface. The principle later used for printing press. Vertical windmills1180s Invented in Europe as pivotable post mill, first surviving mention of one comes from Yorkshire in England in 1185. Efficient at grinding grain or draining water. Later also as stationary tower mill. Wheelbarrow1170s Proved useful in building construction, mining operations, and agriculture. Literary evidence for the use of wheelbarrows appeared between 1170 and 1250 in North-western Europe. First depiction in a drawing by Matthew Parisin the middle of the 13th century.

Military technologies

Technology Circa Notes Arched saddle1050s Enabled mounted knightsto wield lanceunderarm and preventing the charge turning into an unintentional pole-vault. This innovation gave birth to true shock cavalry, enabling the knights to charge on full gallop, thus exceeding the shock value of the cataphracts. Cannon1324 Introduced via the Arabs or Mongols, cannons are first recorded in Europe at the siege of Metzin 1324. In 1350 Petrarchwrote "these instruments which discharge balls of metal with most tremendous noise and flashes of fire...were a few years ago very rare and were viewed with greatest astonishment and admiration, but now they are become as common and familiar as any other kinds of arms." Combined armstactics 1333 The battle of Halidon Hill1333 was the first battle where intentional and disciplined combined arms infantry tactics were employed. The English men-at-arms dismounted aside the archers, combining thus the staying power of super-heavy infantry and striking power of their two-handed weapons with the missiles and mobility of the archers. Combining dismounted knights and men-at-arms with archers was the archetypal Western Medieval battle tactics until the battle of Flodden1513 and final emergence of firearms. Corned gunpowder14th, late First practiced in Western Europe, corning the black powder allowed for more powerful and faster ignition of cannon. Also facilitated storage and transportation to operational area, thus constituting a crucial step in the evolution of gunpowder warfare. Counterweight trebuchet12th Powered solely by the force of gravity, these catapults revolutionized medieval siege warfare and construction of fortifications by hurling huge stones unprecedented distances. Originating somewhere in the eastern Mediterraneanbasin, counterweight trebuchets were introduced in the Crusader statesby the 1120s, Byzantiumby the 1130s and in the Latin West by the second half of the century.[14]Longbowwith massed, disciplined archery 13th Having a high rate of fire and penetration power, the longbow contributed to the eventual demise of the medieval knightclass. Used particularly by the English to great effect against the French cavalry during the Hundred Years' War(1337-1453). Plate armour14th, late Apex of pre-industrial personal armour in terms of body protection and metallurgical skills involved. Large and complete full plates of armour appear by the end of the 14th century. Steel crossbow14th, late European innovation. Came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power. Spurs11th Invented by the Normans, appearing at the same time as cantled saddle. Enabled the knightto control his horse with his feet instead of hands, replacing the whip and leaving his arms free. Rowel spurs familiar from cowboy films were already known in the 13th century. Gilded spurs were the ultimate symbol of the knighthood - even today someone is said to "earn his spurs" by proving his or her worthiness. Stirrup6th Invented by the steppe nomads in what is today Mongolia and northern China in the 4th century and transmitted west. Appeared in Byzantium in the 6th, in the Carolingian Empire in the 8th century. Allowed mounted knight to wield sword and strike from a distance leading to a great advantage for mounted cavalry.

Renaissance technology

Main article: Renaissance technology

In the 15th century, the pace of technical advancements quickens with such diverse innovations like the printing press, linear perspectivity, patent law, double shell domes or bastions.

Footnotes

^ Alfred Crosby described some of this technological revolution in his The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600 and other major historians of technology have also noted it.
^ Archaeological Investigations on the Beginning of Blast Furnace-Technology in Central Europe
^ Radomir Pleiner: Vom Rennfeuer zum Hochofen. "Die Entwicklung der Eisenverhüttung", 9.-14. Jh., in: Uta Lindgren (ed.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800-1400, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 249-256 (255) ISBN 3-7861-1748-9
^ Karl-Heinz Ludwig, Volker Schmidtchen: Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Metalle und Macht 1000-1600, Berlin 1997, p.389f. ISBN 3-549-05633-8
^ Barbara M. Kreutz, “Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass,” Technology and Culture, Vol. 14, No. 3. (Jul., 1973), p.368
^ Frederic C. Lane, “The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass,” The American Historical Review, Vol. 68, No. 3. (Apr., 1963), p.615ff.
^ Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", Technology and Culture, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486-500 (497f. & 500)
^ * Lawrence V. Mott, The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1600: A Technological Tale, Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University
^ Colin Rynne: Milling in the 7th Century – Europe’s earliest tide mills, in: Archaeology Ireland 6, 1992
^ Tide Mill from 787 AD. found at the Nendrum Monastic Site, Northern Ireland
^ Andrea Matthies: Medieval Treadwheels. Artists' Views of Building Construction, Technology and Culture, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), p.515
^ Andrea Matthies: Medieval Treadwheels. Artists' Views of Building Construction, Technology and Culture, Vol. 33, No. 3 (Jul., 1992), p.526
^ Michael Matheus: "Mittelalterliche Hafenkräne," in: Uta Lindgren (ed.): Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800-1400, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 345 ISBN 3-7861-1748-9
^ Paul E. Chevedden, "The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion", Dumbarton Oaks Papers, No. 54 (2000), pp.71-116 (104f.)

References

Andrews, Francis B. The Medieval Builder and His Methods. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1973. Medieval construction technique, with a brief chapter on tools.
Blair, John, and Nigel Ramsay, editors. English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products London: Hambledon Press. 1991. ISBN 1-85285-326-3
Crosby, Alfred. The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Gies, Frances and Joseph. Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages. New York: Harper Collins, 1994. ISBN 0-06-092581-7
Gimpel, Jean. The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages. London: Pimlico, (2nd ed. 1992) ISBN 0-14-004514-7
Long, Pamela O.,editor. Science and Technology in Medieval Society. in Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol 441 New York: New York Academy of Sciences, 1985 ISBN 0-89766-277-6 A series of papers on highly specific topics.
Singer, Charles, editor. History of Technology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954. Volumes II and III cover the Middle Ages with great scope and detail. This is the standard work.
White, Lynn, Jr. Medieval technology and social change. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1962.
White, Lynn, Jr., "The Study of Medieval Technology, 1924-1974: Personal Reflections" Technology and Culture 16.4 (October 1975), pp. 519-530. A chronology and basic bibliography of landmark studies.